Contracts
A contract in Cadence is a collection of type definitions of interfaces, structs, resources, data (its state), and code (its functions) that lives in the contract storage area of an account in Flow.
Contracts are where all composite types like structs, resources, events, and interfaces for these types in Cadence have to be defined. Therefore, an object of one of these types cannot exist without having been defined in a deployed Cadence contract.
Contracts can be created, updated, and removed using the contracts
object of authorized accounts.
This functionality is covered in the next section
Contracts are types. They are similar to composite types, but are stored differently than structs or resources and cannot be used as values, copied, or moved like resources or structs.
Contracts stay in an account's contract storage area and can only be added, updated, or removed by the account owner with special commands.
Contracts are declared using the contract keyword. The keyword is followed
by the name of the contract.
_10pub contract SomeContract {_10 // ..._10}
Contracts cannot be nested in each other.
_10pub contract Invalid {_10_10 // Invalid: Contracts cannot be nested in any other type._10 //_10 pub contract Nested {_10 // ..._10 }_10}
One of the simplest forms of a contract would just be one with a state field,
a function, and an init function that initializes the field:
_17pub contract HelloWorld {_17_17 // Declare a stored state field in HelloWorld_17 //_17 pub let greeting: String_17_17 // Declare a function that can be called by anyone_17 // who imports the contract_17 //_17 pub fun hello(): String {_17 return self.greeting_17 }_17_17 init() {_17 self.greeting = "Hello World!"_17 }_17}
This contract could be deployed to an account and live permanently in the contract storage. Transactions and other contracts can interact with contracts by importing them at the beginning of a transaction or contract definition.
Anyone could call the above contract's hello function by importing
the contract from the account it was deployed to and using the imported
object to call the hello function.
_18import HelloWorld from 0x42_18_18// Invalid: The contract does not know where hello comes from_18//_18log(hello()) // Error_18_18// Valid: Using the imported contract object to call the hello_18// function_18//_18log(HelloWorld.hello()) // prints "Hello World!"_18_18// Valid: Using the imported contract object to read the greeting_18// field._18log(HelloWorld.greeting) // prints "Hello World!"_18_18// Invalid: Cannot call the init function after the contract has been created._18//_18HelloWorld.init() // Error
There can be any number of contracts per account and they can include an arbitrary amount of data. This means that a contract can have any number of fields, functions, and type definitions, but they have to be in the contract and not another top-level definition.
_10// Invalid: Top-level declarations are restricted to only be contracts_10// or contract interfaces. Therefore, all of these would be invalid_10// if they were deployed to the account contract storage and_10// the deployment would be rejected._10//_10pub resource Vault {}_10pub struct Hat {}_10pub fun helloWorld(): String {}_10let num: Int
Another important feature of contracts is that instances of resources and events that are declared in contracts can only be created/emitted within functions or types that are declared in the same contract.
It is not possible create instances of resources and events outside the contract.
The contract below defines a resource interface Receiver and a resource Vault
that implements that interface. The way this example is written,
there is no way to create this resource, so it would not be usable.
_44// Valid_44pub contract FungibleToken {_44_44 pub resource interface Receiver {_44_44 pub balance: Int_44_44 pub fun deposit(from: @{Receiver}) {_44 pre {_44 from.balance > 0:_44 "Deposit balance needs to be positive!"_44 }_44 post {_44 self.balance == before(self.balance) + before(from.balance):_44 "Incorrect amount removed"_44 }_44 }_44 }_44_44 pub resource Vault: Receiver {_44_44 // keeps track of the total balance of the accounts tokens_44 pub var balance: Int_44_44 init(balance: Int) {_44 self.balance = balance_44 }_44_44 // withdraw subtracts amount from the vaults balance and_44 // returns a vault object with the subtracted balance_44 pub fun withdraw(amount: Int): @Vault {_44 self.balance = self.balance - amount_44 return <-create Vault(balance: amount)_44 }_44_44 // deposit takes a vault object as a parameter and adds_44 // its balance to the balance of the Account's vault, then_44 // destroys the sent vault because its balance has been consumed_44 pub fun deposit(from: @{Receiver}) {_44 self.balance = self.balance + from.balance_44 destroy from_44 }_44 }_44}
If a user tried to run a transaction that created an instance of the Vault type,
the type checker would not allow it because only code in the FungibleToken
contract can create new Vaults.
_10import FungibleToken from 0x42_10_10// Invalid: Cannot create an instance of the `Vault` type outside_10// of the contract that defines `Vault`_10//_10let newVault <- create FungibleToken.Vault(balance: 10)
The contract would have to either define a function that creates new
Vault instances or use its init function to create an instance and
store it in the owner's account storage.
This brings up another key feature of contracts in Cadence. Contracts
can interact with its account's storage and published objects to store
resources, structs, and references.
They do so by using the special self.account object that is only accessible within the contract.
Imagine that these were declared in the above FungibleToken contract.
_10_10 pub fun createVault(initialBalance: Int): @Vault {_10 return <-create Vault(balance: initialBalance)_10 }_10_10 init(balance: Int) {_10 let vault <- create Vault(balance: 1000)_10 self.account.save(<-vault, to: /storage/initialVault)_10 }
Now, any account could call the createVault function declared in the contract
to create a Vault object.
Or the owner could call the withdraw function on their own Vault to send new vaults to others.
_10import FungibleToken from 0x42_10_10// Valid: Create an instance of the `Vault` type by calling the contract's_10// `createVault` function._10//_10let newVault <- create FungibleToken.createVault(initialBalance: 10)
Account access
Contracts have the implicit field let account: AuthAccount,
which is the account in which the contract is deployed too.
This gives the contract the ability to e.g. read and write to the account's storage.
Deploying, Updating, and Removing Contracts
In order for a contract to be used in Cadence, it needs to be deployed to an account.
The deployed contracts of an account can be accessed through the contracts object.
Deployed Contracts
Accounts store "deployed contracts", that is, the code of the contract:
_23pub struct DeployedContract {_23 /// The address of the account where the contract is deployed at._23 pub let address: Address_23_23 /// The name of the contract._23 pub let name: String_23_23 /// The code of the contract._23 pub let code: [UInt8]_23_23 /// Returns an array of `Type` objects representing all the public type declarations in this contract_23 /// (e.g. structs, resources, enums)._23 ///_23 /// For example, given a contract_23 /// ```_23 /// contract Foo {_23 /// pub struct Bar {...}_23 /// pub resource Qux {...}_23 /// }_23 /// ```_23 /// then `.publicTypes()` will return an array equivalent to the expression `[Type<Bar>(), Type<Qux>()]`_23 pub fun publicTypes(): [Type]_23}
Note that this is not the contract instance that can be acquired by importing it.
Deploying a New Contract
A new contract can be deployed to an account using the add function:
_10fun add(_10 name: String,_10 code: [UInt8],_10 ... contractInitializerArguments_10): DeployedContract
Adds the given contract to the account.
The code parameter is the UTF-8 encoded representation of the source code.
The code must contain exactly one contract or contract interface,
which must have the same name as the name parameter.
All additional arguments that are given are passed further to the initializer of the contract that is being deployed.
Fails if a contract/contract interface with the given name already exists in the account, if the given code does not declare exactly one contract or contract interface, or if the given name does not match the name of the contract/contract interface declaration in the code.
Returns the deployed contract.
For example, assuming the following contract code should be deployed:
_10pub contract Test {_10 pub let message: String_10_10 init(message: String) {_10 self.message = message_10 }_10}
The contract can be deployed as follows:
_15// Decode the hex-encoded source code into a byte array_15// using the built-in function `decodeHex`._15//_15// (The ellipsis ... indicates the remainder of the string)_15//_15let code = "70756220636f6e...".decodeHex()_15_15// `code` has type `[UInt8]`_15_15let signer: AuthAccount = ..._15signer.contracts.add(_15 name: "Test",_15 code: code,_15 message: "I'm a new contract in an existing account"_15)
Updating a Deployed Contract
🚧 Status: Updating contracts is experimental.
Updating contracts is currently limited to maintain data consistency. Certain restrictions are imposed.
A deployed contract can be updated using the update__experimental function:
_10fun update__experimental(name: String, code: [UInt8]): DeployedContract
Updates the code for the contract/contract interface in the account.
The code parameter is the UTF-8 encoded representation of the source code.
The code must contain exactly one contract or contract interface,
which must have the same name as the name parameter.
Does not run the initializer of the contract/contract interface again. The contract instance in the world state stays as is.
Fails if no contract/contract interface with the given name exists in the account, if the given code does not declare exactly one contract or contract interface, or if the given name does not match the name of the contract/contract interface declaration in the code.
Returns the deployed contract for the updated contract.
For example, assuming that a contract named Test is already deployed to the account
and it should be updated with the following contract code:
_10pub contract Test {_10 pub let message: String_10_10 init(message: String) {_10 self.message = message_10 }_10}
The contract can be updated as follows:
_11// Decode the hex-encoded source code into a byte array_11// using the built-in function `decodeHex`._11//_11// (The ellipsis ... indicates the remainder of the string)_11//_11let code = "70756220636f6e...".decodeHex()_11_11// `code` has type `[UInt8]`_11_11let signer: AuthAccount = ..._11signer.contracts.update__experimental(name: "Test", code: code)
Updating a contract does not currently change any existing stored data. Only the code of the contract is updated.
Getting a Deployed Contract
A deployed contract can be gotten from an account using the get function:
_10fun get(name: String): DeployedContract?
Returns the deployed contract for the contract/contract interface with the given name in the account, if any.
Returns nil if no contract/contract interface with the given name exists in the account.
For example, assuming that a contract named Test is deployed to an account, the contract can be retrieved as follows:
_10let signer: AuthAccount = ..._10let contract = signer.contracts.get(name: "Test")
Borrowing a Deployed Contract
In contrast to a static contract import import T from 0x1,
which will always perform an import of a type,
contracts can be "borrowed" to effectively perform a dynamic import dependent on a specific execution path.
A reference to a deployed contract contract can obtained using the borrow function:
_10fun borrow<T: &Any>(name: String): T?
This returns a reference to the contract value stored with that name on the account,
if it exists, and if it has the provided type T.
Returns nil if no contract/contract interface with the given name exists in the account.
For example, assuming that a contract named Test which conforms to the TestInterface interface is deployed to an account, the contract can be retrieved as follows:
_10let signer: AuthAccount = ..._10let contract: &TestInterface = signer.contracts.borrow<&TestInterface>(name: "Test")_10_10### Removing a Deployed Contract_10_10A deployed contract can be removed from an account using the `remove` function:_10_10```cadence_10fun remove(name: String): DeployedContract?
Removes the contract/contract interface from the account which has the given name, if any.
Returns the removed deployed contract, if any.
Returns nil if no contract/contract interface with the given name exist in the account.
For example, assuming that a contract named Test is deployed to an account, the contract can be removed as follows:
_10let signer: AuthAccount = ..._10let contract = signer.contracts.remove(name: "Test")
Contract Interfaces
Like composite types, contracts can have interfaces that specify rules about their behavior, their types, and the behavior of their types.
Contract interfaces have to be declared globally. Declarations cannot be nested in other types.
If a contract interface declares a concrete type, implementations of it must also declare the same concrete type conforming to the type requirement.
If a contract interface declares an interface type, the implementing contract
does not have to also define that interface. They can refer to that nested
interface by saying {ContractInterfaceName}.{NestedInterfaceName}
_26// Declare a contract interface that declares an interface and a resource_26// that needs to implement that interface in the contract implementation._26//_26pub contract interface InterfaceExample {_26_26 // Implementations do not need to declare this_26 // They refer to it as InterfaceExample.NestedInterface_26 //_26 pub resource interface NestedInterface {}_26_26 // Implementations must declare this type_26 //_26 pub resource Composite: NestedInterface {}_26}_26_26pub contract ExampleContract: InterfaceExample {_26_26 // The contract doesn't need to redeclare the `NestedInterface` interface_26 // because it is already declared in the contract interface_26_26 // The resource has to refer to the resource interface using the name_26 // of the contract interface to access it_26 //_26 pub resource Composite: InterfaceExample.NestedInterface {_26 }_26}